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MULTIMEDIA
FOR LEARNING: METHODS AND DEVELOPMENT, 3rd edition.
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In their introductory chapter, Alessi & Trollip review the history of computers generally, with a special emphasis on the use of computers for instruction. They find that technological improvements have generally led to advances in educational computing, but these advances have commonly been preceded by setbacks as the new technologies are implemented. For example, the move from mainframe computers to personal computers reduced the cost of computers, thereby making them more widely available, but also resulted initially in a loss of interconnectivity. The development of the Internet and World Wide Web restored that interconnectivity, but the development of robust software for creating instructional applications in this new environment has lagged.
The authors emphasize that computers are not a universally appropriate instructional media, and suggest circumstances where computers are likely to be the most, or among the most, appropriate media for instruction. Among these are situations where instruction via computer might be more cost effective or safer than instruction via other media, instruction to a population of special-needs learners, and areas where extensive practice is required.
Alessi and Trollip define instruction as the facilitation of learning via any means, be it traditional classroom lecture or the creation of a learning environment. They describe the four steps they believe are necessary for successful instruction to occur. PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION begins the process. Information can be presented via text, example, picture, demonstration, or any of a host of methods. GUIDING THE LEARNER, the next phase, is successful when the learner develops an understanding of the material presented. PRACTICE is intended to help the learner develop speed and fluency, with the new information, and to retain it. Finally, ASSESSMENT can both measure the level and quality of learning and determine the value of the instruction. Computers can be used in one, two, three, or all four phases of learning.
The authors close the chapter by introducing the eight methodologies of interactive multimedia which the second part of the book will explore: Tutorials, Hypermedia, Drills, Simulations, Games, Tools & open-ended learning environments, Tests, and Web-Based Learning. They discuss briefly the content of chapters 2 and 3, and review the topics to be covered in part III of the book.
Although the authors do list the type of setting my instructional module will be situated in as one where use of the computer to facilitate learning is likely to be beneficial, I am confident that computer-based instruction will be the most effective method. This instruction will be accessed by learners who come from a variety of circumstances but share a common goal, and will be accessed by them on an as-needed basis.
I was disappointed that the authors did not expand on their discussion of the need for "software designed specifically for the Web for developing instruction" (p. 5). They state that the Web has hindered [the growth of effective instructional software] by not providing tools for developing good instructional multimedia" (p. 4) but do not describe what those tools would be like or what designers using them could achieve.
One conclusion a designer could draw from their review of developments in educational computing is that any product developed for the current technical environment is likely to be made obsolete in environments to come. Constructing instructional multimedia in a way that allows for content and design elements to transfer to new technical presentations would therefore be a valuable goal.
"Instruction is the application of basic principles of learning," write Alessi and Trollip in the introduction to this chapter (p. 16) and these principles should guide the development of educational software. There are several competing paradigms, but it is possible to find complementary areas and to incorporate aspects of several learning theories to develop instructionally sound multimedia.
BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY defines learning as observable changes in the learner which can be demonstrated to have occurred in response to changes in the environment. Behavioralism was the dominant theory when the practice of Instructional System Design was developed during World War II, and continues to shape ISD to a great extent. Alessi & Trollip devote relatively little discussion to this theory as compared to those that followed it.
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, in
contrast to behavioral psychology, emphasizes knowing over doing and is concerned
with outcomes which are not necessarily observable. Various understandings of
the nature of knowing have been developed by cognitive psychologists, including
information processing, schema, and semantic networks. Alessi and Trollip discuss
in detail some areas of cognitive theory that are relevant to the development
of educational multimedia.
Perception and Attention are related to the presentation phase of instruction.
Learners must both perceive and pay attention to the information as it is presented.
The visual presentation of data, including color, placement, font choice and
size, etc. are all related to perception and attention.
Encoding refers to the learner's storage of the presented information. The use
of multimedia to present information in more than one way can facilitate encoding.
Memory, the learner's ability to recall information, is driven by organization
and repetition. The design of a multimedia presentation can enhance or detract
from the learner's ability to organize information, and repetition can be designed
into the presentation.
Comprehension refers to the learner's incorporation of the new information in
a meaningful way into his or her understanding. Multimedia can provide learners
with opportunities to apply information in order to develop and demonstrate
comprehension.
Active learning is learning that requires the learner to act in response to
information. Computers can facilitate this in a variety of ways and can provide
opportunities for individualized active learning to large groups of learners
at the same time.
Motivation, the desire to learn, is necessary for learning to occur. Alessi
and Trollip discuss two models for motivational development in multimedia. Malone
& Lepper theorize that elements of challenge, curiosity, control, and fantasy
are relevant to learner motivation. Keller's "ARCS" model focuses
on the somewhat overlapping elements of attention, relevance, confidence, and
control.
Locus of Control refers to whether the learner or the program makes decisions
about order, intensity, and other aspects of the presentation of instruction.
Mental Models are thought representations learners use to understand the world
around them. Computers can facilitate the development of mental models.
Metacognition refers to the learner's understanding of his or her learning.
Data indicates that learners who have an accurate picture of their understanding
are more successful than those who do not.
Transfer of Learning is related to comprehension. Transfer is said to occur
when a learner can take learning from one circumstance and apply it to another.
Individual Difference refers to the fact that different people learn at different
rates and in different ways. Computers can be used to present instruction which
is tailored to individual needs.
CONSTRUCTIVISM views knowledge as something which each learner must build or construct in his or her own mind. Discovery learning, where learners explore in a relatively non-structured environment, and construction, where learners build knowledge by creating, are both constructivist approaches. Situated learning, learning that takes place in an authentic, real-world context, and collaborative or cooperative learning, which allows learners to work side-by-side, or requires them to work together, are also constructivist methodologies. Constructivists emphasize the greater value of learning which allows for learner autonomy, requires strategic thinking, and takes place in a complex environment. Computers be used to provide constructivist learning environments and also may serve as a tool for knowledge construction.
Alessi and Trollip take on the objectivist/instructivist vs. constructivist debate by explaining that this debate is based on a false belief in opposing polarities in educational theory. While constructivists would lump behaviorists and cognitivists together and place the lump at the opposite end of a line from themselves, Alessi and Trollip believe the correct geometric model for current learning theory is a triangle, with constructivists, behaviorists, and cognitive theorists each at one corner. Within the triangle described by these points, a variety of understandings are possible.
I think the authors really drop the ball in their discussion of extrinsic vs. intrinsic learning. In discussing Malone's theory, they describe intrinsic motivators as coming from within the person; the remainder of their discussion of the relevant factors he identified focuses on factors within the instruction, rather than within the learner. In INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN, Smith and Ragan (1999, pp. 259-260) do a much better job of describing intrinsic motivations. The idea that learners who want to master the material (i.e., who have learning goals) generally are more successful, especially in terms of far transfer of learning, than those who have some kind of performance goal, is an important one that Alessi and Trollip fail to discuss.
Ever since I began my study of instructional technology, I have been uncomfortable with the notion that aspects of often contradictory theories may be combined to create useful and reliable instruction. In the absence of a persuasive theory which satisfactorily explains and predicts all types and varieties of learning outcomes, this approach seems to be the only viable one, but it still bugs me.
In the conclusion of this chapter, the authors state that "As a rule of thumb, the beginning multimedia designer should start with the simpler and more directed methodologies, such as tutorial and drill, before tackling more complex and constructivist methodologies, such as hypermedia, simulations, or open-ended learning environments" (p. 40). This is advice I intend to take in developing my project this semester. Many of the areas emphasized by cognitive theorists have relevance for my particular project. Mental models, active learning, transfer and comprehension are all areas I want to pay special attention to.
Chapter 3, General Features of Software for Learning (pp. 48-85)
This chapter examines the factors (characteristics which the designer can manipulate to influence the look, effectiveness, and functionality of software) common to all educational software. These are: the introduction; learner control; presentation of information; help; and the ending.
INTRODUCTION - All software should begin with an introduction that includes a title page, directions for navigating the program, and, in some cases, a place where the user identifies himself or herself. A simple and interesting title page should always be included. Directions should be simple, clear, relevant, and easy to find from anywhere in the site. Users should only be asked to identify themselves if this information is relevant. User identification should be easy and straightforward.
LOCUS OF CONTROL - For each
educational software product, decisions must be made about what aspects of the
learning experience the learner should control, and how that control is to be
provided. To date, studies of the advantages and disadvantages of learner control
have yielded inconclusive results. It is probably best to base decisions about
locus of control on knowledge of the learner population's motivation and metacognition,
and on whether learning outcomes are specific and essential (suggesting less
learner control) or general and less life-and-death (suggesting more learner
control).
Learner control may be provided by a variety of methods and through a variety
of modes. Hyperlinks, buttons, and menus are the most common methods. Buttons
are most useful for providing location-specific control in a section of a site.
Menus are better for offering whole-site control options, and hyperlinks are
best employed to facilitate control of navigation. There are also three main
modes of learner control: the keyboard, the mouse, and speech. The mouse is
the most efficient mode for using the three most common control methods (menus,
buttons, and hyperlinks); however, many keyboard controls can be used as an
alternative to mousing (eg: hitting enter instead of clicking; using arrow keys).
The keyboard is employed for typing commands, often in searching. Speech control
is as yet fairly uncommon; it holds great promise for providing control to physically
challenged learners.
PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION
- There are four modes of information presentation available to designers of
educational software: text, graphics, sound, and video. A variety of considerations
influence the use of each mode of delivery. As discussed in chapter 2, the presentation
of information through more than one mode may facilitate learner encoding of
information.
Text is the most common mode of information presentation in educational multimedia.
Good decisions about both the appearance and the content of text are crucial.
Layout and formatting need to be consistent within and among pages. There is
some debate over whether scrolling or paging is the better way of advancing
to information beyond that which will fit on the screen at a given time. Alessi
& Trollip recommend paging for most situations. Text quality is improved
by the use of good grammar and punctuation, clear indication of transitions
between segments, clarity and lack of wordiness, and use of language appropriate
to the reading level of the target learner population.
Graphics will generally draw learner attention, and should only be used to reinforce
text rather than simply to ornament it. Appropriate uses of graphics include
providing information; illustrating or providing analogies; organizing information;
and cueing learner attention. A variety of graphics, including line drawings,
photographs, diagrams, and animated images, are available to multimedia designers.
Video can be an invaluable addition to an instructional program in which the
operation of something in the physical world must be demonstrated or displayed.
However, the production of good quality video does require a certain level of
technical expertise, and video files often tax the speed and display capabilities
of learners' hardware. If video is used, learners should be given control over
play and display options.
Sound, in addition to being an essential component of instruction in areas such
as language and music, is also often a valuable addition to instruction in other
areas, where it can reinforce presentation via other modes and also gain and
direct learner attention. As with video, speed and display issues must be taken
into consideration.
PROVIDING HELP - There are two types of help which should be provided to learners: procedural and informational. Procedural help guides learners in using the program. It should be available from any point in the program and should be clear and easy to follow. It may reinforce or expand on information given in the directions. Informational help assists learners with mastery of the content of the program. The amount of informational help provided will vary depending on the nature and goals of the program.
ENDING A PROGRAM - Users may end a program temporarily, and return to it later, or they may end a program permanently, concluding all their interaction with it. Except in special cases, learners should be able to exit a program and resume later at the point where they temporarily ended their work. Activities to enhance retention and transfer might be included at a program's conclusion, but should also be offered throughout the learning experience. It is useful to have a "safety net" to prompt the user to confirm a command to exit the program in order to prevent the learner from accidentally ending a session. Credits are often provided at the program's conclusion. A user exiting the program should receive a message stating clearly that the program has been finished and is being exited.
This chapter contains many
valuable recommendations about specific details of site design. The discussion
of various methods and modes of providing learner control and when to use each
was very helpful. I wish there had been more discussion in the modes of presentation
session on how to optimally combine various modes, since it is the ability to
do this with computers that makes computer-based instruction so nifty.
The main aspects to take into consideration in developing a tutorial are the introduction, the organization and sequence of segments in the tutorial, the amount of control given to the learner, and the nature of questions and responses, the way responses will be judged, and the feedback they will receive.
The Introduction
The most important aspects of the introduction are the presentation of objectives
and the stimulation of prior knowledge. There is some debate over whether behavioral
(e.g., you will be able to state the names of the presidents in order) or nonbehavioral
objectives (e.g., you will be aware of presidential history) are more effective
for enhancing learning. Stimulating prior knowledge is an effective way to increase
learner motivation and may also increase comprehension and transfer. It is a
useful technique not just in the introduction but also throughout the tutorial.
Pretesting may be done in the introduction, or it may be done in a separate module. A mandatory pretest may be discouraging to learners. If the pretest is not presented in a separate program from the tutorial, it should be made optional.
Questions and Responses
Although the effect of answering questions on learning has not been demonstrated
conclusively, research suggests that the process does enhance learning. Moreover,
requiring learners to answer questions is a useful way of keeping learner attention
focused on the program, and also provides a means of assessing learning and
directing practice. Questions should be asked frequently and should occur as
part of a four-phase cycle that includes question, response, assessment, and
feedback or remediation.
*Types of Questions
The two main types of questions are "alternate-response," in which
the learner chooses from a given list of options. True/false, matching (including
drag-and-drop), and multiple choice questions are all alternate response questions.
"Constructed response" questions require the learner to produce a
response. Fill in the blank questions and essay questions are examples of constructed
response questions.
*Use of Graphics
Graphics may be used as the context or content of the question, or as prompts
on the question screen.
*Relevance
Questions should focus on the essential concepts of the lesson, not on peripherals.
*Placement
Questions may be presented either before or after the information they relate
to is presented. Opening with the question may excite learner interest but will
not help assess learning. Learners frequently ignore anything that appears to
be irrelevant to the main purpose of the page. Instructions related to the completion
of the question should be given prominent placement.
*Mode of Response
Whenever possible, mouse controls should be used for alternate response questions.
The keyboard will be required for constructed response questions. Speech is
not yet a reliable mode of user-computer interaction in most circumstances.
Learners should be able to respond quickly and easily, and the means by which
they are to respond should be clearly marked on the computer screen.
Judgment
Judgment involves the assessment of the correctness of an answer. Judgment can
trigger feedback and guide program sequencing. It may also involve the storing
of performance data. Alternate response questions are easier to judge than constructed
response questions. In programming tutorials that involve constructed response
questions, great care should be taken to give clear instructions and to give
feedback that guides the learner to format answers correctly. Providing a correct
answer in an incorrect format and can be very frustrating for learners.
Feedback
Feedback is the program's response to the learner's judged answer. The purpose
of feedback is to inform the learner about the correctness of a given response.
Feedback for correct answers should include reinforcement, and feedback for
incorrect answers should include correction and additional guidance. In most
cases, feedback is most beneficial when given immediately. Depending on the
nature of the tutorial, feedback may supply hints, provide additional chances
to answer the question, or provide the correct answer. Remediation, which is
more intensive than feedback may direct the learner to review previous sections
or provide additional information and examples.
Organization and Sequencing of Program Segments
The way that instruction is organized depends in part on the type of information
being presented. The four most common types of information are: verbal information,
concepts, rules and principles, and skills. Depending on content and learner
characteristics, program organization may follow a linear, branching, or learner-specific
organizational plan. Complex information with lots of interconnections is not
well-suited to teaching via tutorial.
Organization and Content
Verbal information - Presentation of verbal information entails naming things
and stating the relationships between them.
Concepts - Concepts are groups of things that share common characteristics and
that can be distinguished from other things that do not have those characteristics.
Rules and Principles - Rules and principles may be taught either by presenting
the rule and then giving examples of it, or by giving examples first and then
presenting the rule that determines them.
Skills - Skills are best taught through modeling and demonstrations.
Types of Organization
Linear - Instructional modules that follow a linear organization move in one
direction through one sequence. This sequence is generally determined by the
hierarchy of the information to be presented. In other words, the enabling objectives
are taught sequentially, building up to the terminal objective.
Branching - Branching tutorials give learners varying degrees of control over
the order in which work through the segments of the tutorial. Branching tutorials
may require all learners to complete all components, or may allow learners to
skip some areas or to access additional information. Often, branching tutorials
will guide learners back to review material they have not mastered or send them
ahead when mastery is demonstrated.
Flexible Difficulty - The content of some tutorials varies depending on learner
performance. Learners who excel will be given more difficult questions while
learners who struggle will receive simplified instruction.
Learner Control
Regardless of the type of sequencing that is used, it is essential that learners
have clear and simple page controls. Whether they are using a linear program
or a branching one, learners should be able to move easily through the site.
Help should be easy to access, and learners should be allowed after a certain
point to ask for the answer to a given question rather than being forced to
remain on the page until they answer it correctly.
Comments: I think that I will be providing more opportunities for practice than most tutorials do. I want to make this practice optional, though, so learners can do as much or as little as they find useful. I will probably combine some elements of linear and branching tutorials. I don't think I'm up to assessing learner skill and programming flexible difficulty levels.
Chapter 12 begins Part III of Multimedia for Learning. This section is intended to help designers use the information presented in earlier chapters to develop an effective model for successful multimedia development. The authors sum up their purpose as follows:
"Our intention is to take those parts of the ISD approach that are specifically related to individual program design, to simplify them for the beginning instructional developer, to add those procedures necessary for delivery by computer, and to incorporate into them procedures that will enhance creative use of the computer" (p. 408).
Each of the three phases discussed in chapter 12 (planning, design, and development) will be expanded upon in a subsequent chapter. Phase I, planning, has much in common with the Analysis phase of the ADDIE process. Establishing learning prerequisites and instructional goals are among the activities undertaken in this phase. Phase II, Design, is the point at which most of the conceptual work on the project is done, while Phase III, Development, sees the actual creation of the multimedia product.
Alessi and Trollip's model for project development has seven essential features: standards, empiricism of approach, management focus, emphasis on cognitive principles, movement from thought to action, an emphasis on creativity, and a team-oriented approach. These seven criteria inform three process attributes: standards, ongoing evaluation, and project management, which should characterize all three phases of development.
Standards - A designer or design team will approach each project with an idea in mind of the minimum standards which should be achieved in completing the project. Additionally, each project will also have other client-driven standards.
Ongoing evaluation - In order to ensure that all standards for project development are met, a constant process of evaluation must occur. This evaluation will often inspire revision, making the design process an interactive one.
Project management - Management both drives and responds to the evaluation process. As evaluation assesses what has been done, management compares what has been done to what must be done, and measures all of it against the standards set at the project's inception. Early planning, continuous monitoring, and effective communication are three hallmarks of successful project management.
The remainder of the chapter is devoted to a brief discussion of expectations and a longer analysis of the various aspects of a project which should be considered as part of the process of ongoing evaluation.
The establishment of explicit expectations for a project is critical for its success, and the development of agreed-upon standards is a crucial part of this process. Once expectations are set, it is possible to evaluate whether design and development activities are likely to result in a product which will meet them. The evaluation form is a useful tool for expressing quality expectations and evaluating whether they have been met. Among the features which should be evaluated are: subject matter, auxiliary information, affective considerations, interface, navigation, pedagogy, invisible features, robustness, and supplemental materials.
Subject matter evaluation should consider consistency between material presented and the product's learning goals, the validity of its structure and accuracy of its content, and the language, style, and grammar of its textual expression. In evaluating language, style, and grammar, reading level, cultural bias, use of technical terms, spelling, grammar, punctuation, the need for a glossary and the use of hot words should all be considered.
The auxiliary information associated with instructional multimedia may be defined as those parts of a program not directly involved in content learning. In chapter 3, Alessi and Trollip named the general features of software for learning: introduction (which includes directions), locus of control, presentation of information, help, and ending the program. Of these, the introduction, directions, help, and conclusion may be viewed as auxiliary information.
Evaluating a program's affective component means measuring how well it motivates the learners who use it.
Factors which should be considered in evaluating an interface include aesthetics of displays and their suitability for a variety of monitor sizes and screen resolutions, and the appropriate use of presentation modes (text, audio, video, and graphics).
Navigation - In evaluating the quality of a product's navigation, the following features should be considered: provision of appropriate navigation aids, consistent use of these aids across the program, ease of restarting, and appropriate options for bookmarking.
Pedagogy - As a project evolves, it may be useful to reconsider the question of the most appropriate medium for delivery of instruction. The dimensions of this issue should be examined: Are the instructional methodologies appropriate? Is the computer's ability to provide interactivity and to promote cooperative learning being utilized? Are the learners being presented with an appropriate amount of information? Has a learning metaphor been employed, and, if so, is it an suitable one? Will the product enhance its users' learning strategies? Are users given an appropriate amount of control? Is there a segment in which the learner is required to answer questions, and, if so, is the method for doing so obvious? Is useful feedback given? What standard for mastery has been set?
Invisible features - Invisible features are those features used by instructors but unseen by students. If data about user performance is kept, is it secure? Will the program be able to store and process all the data generated by its users.
Robustness - A robust program is one that will not break down, lock up, or malfunction.
Supplemental materials - Supplemental materials may include instruction manuals, teacher guides, or resources which provide additional information to that included in the program. They should be clear, accurate, and available to all users.
The planning phase of the instructional multimedia development process is primarily devoted to assessing the context in which the product will be utilized, and also the context in which it will be developed.
Planning involves these
steps:
Define the scope
Identify learner characteristics
Establish constraints
Cost the project
Produce a planning document
Produce a style manual
Identify and collect resources
Brainstorming
Define look and feel of product
Obtain client sign-off
The planning process may begin with a determination of learning outcomes, or the scope of the given content that the instruction is expected to cover. What is the learner intended to know or be able to do at the end of the learning experience? Answering this question will both ensure that the problem that the product is intended to address is in fact a learning problem and establish an expectation for what the product is supposed to deliver.
Once learning outcomes have been determined, learner characteristics should be assessed. Relevant characteristics may include age, experience, physical and intellectual ability, reading level, educational background, socioeconomic status, and motivation. Prior knowledge of the subject matter area to be taught should also be determined. It may be possible that the client intends to use the instructional product as a form of reference as well as a teaching tool. If this is the case, characteristics of those who will use the tool for reference should also be assessed.
Establishing constraints involves comparing the context in which the product will function to the qualities it is expected to have. Constraints include hardware, software, cost, and time. Determining client and developer responsibilities is an essential aspect of the planning process. Failure to do this could leave a developer liable for failing to do something that they were rendered unable to do by the client. This process also helps make clear expectations for the project. Content availability in general and ability to obtain permissions necessary to access some of the content are other constraints on development.
Determining the cost of the project is another phase of the planning process. An itemized list of deliverables and an analysis of the time and materials required to produce each is essential for a for-hire project. For projects done for school or for one's own use, an estimate of the financial cost is somewhat less crucial, but it still extremely useful to calculate the amount of time which will be required to create the product.
The production of a style manual is another important part of the planning process. The style manual will establish the look and feel of the product, establish style conventions, and set parameters for functionality. By following the style manual, diverse contributors can work on different parts of the product and create components that will all fit together into a seamless whole.
Several types of resources are drawn upon in an instructional development project. Content resources contain data about the subject matter to be taught and/or examples of ways to teach it. Instructional design resources guide the design process. Delivery system resources are manuals and references related to the computers, software, etc. which will be used to create the product. It is often valuable to use a computer database to document, organize, and track these resources.
Once the planning documents and resources are in place, it is time to develop an approach to the project. One way to find a creative angle is to conduct an initial round of brainstorming. The goal of brainstorming is to produce a large quantity of ideas. Quality is not evaluated in the initial brainstorming phase, since an idea that is not directly applicable can trigger a more useful idea. These ideas will be drawn on in the design phase of the process.
The determination of the way the finished product should look and feel is also part of the planning process. Diagrams and prototypes may be used to communicate design ideas.
Once all these steps have been accomplished, it is time to obtain client approval, or sign-off, for everything that has occurred and is being planned.
Although all this planning may seem to be delaying the beginning of work on a project, it is in fact a critical component of that work. Good planning at the onset will save a lot of time later on and will contribute to the efficiency of the design and development process and to the quality of the finished product.
The design phase is the most creative of the three phases of the instructional design process. The designer produces a plan for instruction that will help the target learners reach the intended learning outcomes and which conforms to the constraints of the given project. This plan for instruction is generally communicated to all relevant parties through various design documents. These documents will enable the development team to turn the proposed instructional product into a reality. During the design phase, then, ideas about the content to be presented and the methods for presenting it are finalized, these ideas are turned into a first draft of the program, and, finally, design documents are created.
Brainstorming, which was used in the planning phase to develop an overall approach to the project, can be used in the design phase to generate ideas about content to be taught and ways to teach it. Once an exhaustive list of subjects and methods for teaching them has been produced, the list is then narrowed to those ideas that are most relevant and that can be both learned by the target population and effectively taught within the scope of the project. Having eliminated from the list those concepts that will not be taught, the designer must then analyze those concepts which WILL be taught.
The two most commonly used methods of content analysis are task analysis and concept analysis. Task analysis begins with the final, or terminal, objective and breaks it down into its component parts, each of which is then similarly broken down. This process continues until the "entry-level skills," those skills and abilities the target learners should possess before receiving the instruction, are reached. Concept analysis takes a learning domain and breaks it down into the relevant concepts which must be understood before the domain can be mastered.
Once the components of the learning that the product is intended to facilitate have been analyzed, a preliminary program description may be developed. The types of learning represented by each component of the content analysis should be identified and appropriate methodologies to facilitate that learning established. A flowchart or diagram may be used to illustrate the sequence of the intended instruction.
Once the design has been completed, it must be communicated to all interested parties: the client, the project manager, and all the members of the development team. A detailed series of design documents will ensure that client expectations and project realities are in harmony, that project creep is avoided, and that developers have a clear understanding of their responsibilities and are able to produce what is required of them.
A prototype is a rough model of the final product. Prototypes are useful to help clients and developers envision the planned program. They can convey information about the look and feel of the product and show how the methodology would translate into the learners' actual experience.
Flowcharts reveal the structure and sequence of the instruction. They show how the various enabling objectives are taught and how the learner moves through them to reach the terminal objective. A detailed flowchart will also diagram the programming that goes on behind the scenes. Flowcharts show the steps the learners would encounter, but also show how the product will respond to each possible outcome at each step. Good flowcharts can reduce the risk of poor programming.
Storyboards present a visual representation of the design. While a prototype can show how part of a product will work and a flowchart documents the factors that make it work that way, storyboards convey much more detailed information about a product's appearance. Storyboards should include the complete primary text and secondary text as they will appear onscreen, graphics, and audio and video scripts.
Evaluation of each of these design documents by experts is crucial to ensure that the final product will be effective and appropriate. When all the planning documents have been completed, evaluated by experts, and revised, client sign-off should be obtained.
In most cases, the development of instructional multimedia is a collaborative process involving a team of individuals with specialized areas of expertise working to create the instructional multimedia while a project manager oversees and coordinates their efforts. This chapter reads in many respects as though it were written for the project managers, who monitor the implementation of the previously agreed-upon design as programming code is written, graphics, text, video and audio are produced, and supplemental materials are developed and created. The development phase also includes assessment, refinement, and validation of the product. Although professionals should be used whenever possible for each aspect of development, it is useful for project managers to have at least some limited experience with the various skills and processes.
During the development phase, the project manager keeps a close eye on costs and time expended and compares them to budgets and schedules to ensure that the project is done on time and within the allotted budget.
The text will largely have been written during the design phase. Programming involves translating the inert text into a dynamic computer program. Programmers must take the technology that will be used by the target audience into account when writing the product's code. It may be possible to draw on existing code to create some parts of the program. A variety of drawing and photo-editing tools are available to graphic designers. It is important that the quality and richness of graphics, whether still or animated, be consistent throughout the program. Video, which can be especially effective for teaching topics such as physical skills, is also expensive to produce well, and sometimes difficult to deliver efficiently via Web. If video is to be used, it should be included only when clearly more effective than other options, and should always be professionally produced. Audio is less expensive to produce and easier to deliver via Web than video. If audio is included, users should be given the option not to listen to it. (Both video and audio are easier to deliver via CD-Rom than over the Web.) When all of these components are united, it is important to establish clear procedures for modification so that updated versions are not overwritten by earlier ones.
In many cases, support materials must also be created. These can include user manuals, teachers' manuals, technical manuals, and additional teaching and learning materials.
In general, only the most complex of programs will require a technical manual. Information about equipment and system requirements and setup will generally be included in the instructor's manual but not in the manual for learners. Similarly, if there is little additional instructional material, it may be included in the other manuals rather than published separately. In addition to the standard title page table of contents, and introduction, the learners' manual might include information about how the program normally runs, worksheets, and/or suggestions for further study. The instructor's manual could also include material for teaching learners how to use the program, possible test questions, and/or a trouble-shooting guide.
Once all these components are created and assembled, it is time to test the product. Alpha testing involves a thorough review of all aspects of the program and supplemental materials by the design and development team. Problems should then be discussed and corrected; these changes should be well-documented. If extensive changes have been made, a second alpha test is probably in order.
Following the completion of the alpha test and revision cycle or cycles, the product is given to the client for beta testing. Beta testing is a formal process that generally includes the following steps: selection of learners; explanation of the test procedure; determination of the learners' level of prior knowledge (this may already have been done as an initial step in order to obtain an appropriate learner pool); observe the learners using the program; interview them after they complete the program; assess the learning which occurred; revise the program as needed.
Following the completion of all testing and revisions, the product is given to the client for final approval (sign-off). Turning the program over to the client does not mean forgetting about it. Even the most rigorous alpha and beta testing cannot substitute for evaluating a program's effectiveness in the real world. The process of determining how well an instructional product helps its users attain the desired learning outcome is called validation. This real-world evaluation should look at a variety of aspects of the program's effectiveness. Level-1 evaluation entails the determination of learners' reactions to and attitudes towards the program. Level-2 evaluation measures attainment of intended learning outcomes. Level-3 evaluation involves determining whether learners can transfer their learning from the module to the real world. Finally, Level-4 evaluation compares the value of the learning to the cost of creating the product. The higher the level of evaluation, the more complicated it is to conduct and the less often it is conducted.
I found it unfortunate that the discussion of support materials was based entirely upon the assumption that the product in question would be used in a situation where there actually was an instructor! Even in cases where an instructor is involved, for Web-based modules, the learners will often be working on their own equipment at a site far-removed from that instructor. Decisions about what data to include in a particular manual should take this circumstance into consideration.
Although this chapter was written to guide design and development teams, particularly project managers, it still included useful information for those involved in jack-of-all-trades instructional development, such as myself. The guidelines for alpha and beta testing and for validation should prove useful.
Appendix A contains two
forms which may be used to create storyboards. One is intended for use in developing
products that have audio, the other for use in developing products that do not.
Appendix B contains lists
of all of the types of material that may be included in learners', instructors',
and technical manuals. Unless my instructional design changes, I will not be
creating any supplemental manuals for this project.